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Cryptoprocessors provide security and prevent tampering by concealing the decrypted program instructions. Besides encryption, numerous other means are employed to ensure secure tamper resistance; these include but are not limited to the following: • Tamper-resistant containers with tamper detection • Electromagnetic shielding around the chip or conductive shield layers in the chip that prevent the reading of internal signals • Software controls to prevent timing delays or to authenticate the operating system and software applications • Access controls and password protection Regarding encryption, numerous distinct families or levels are generally employed. Multiple encryption involves re-encrypting an already-encrypted message at least one or more times using the same or a different algorithm, thereby protecting the program and its data. In an article entitled "The great chain of being sure about things," published online on October 31, 2015, The Economist describes a dedicated crypto block, or blockchain technology (Figure 1), as a decentralized, distributed, and public digital ledger that records transactions across many computers so that the record is unalterable retroactively without an alteration of all subsequent blocks and without a collusion of the network. This allows the participants to verify and audit transactions inexpensively and quickly. Encryption algorithms can be programmed in software or they can be implemented directly into the electronic hardware. Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) are reprogrammable devices that combine the flexibility of software with the speed of hardware. For these devices, encryption algorithms are typically programmed into math functions that are embedded in the FPGA hardware. Application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) offer another means of embedding encryption algorithms into hardware. ASICs are integrated circuits (ICs) that are customized for a specific use or application rather than general-purpose use. The implementation of encryption in ASICs generally results in smaller, faster, and lower power consumption electronics. Two popular encryption schemes are symmetric and asymmetric encryption. Symmetric encryption is the simplest form of encryption and involves only one secret key to encrypt and decrypt information. The management and protection of secret keys can be challenging, however. Asymmetric encryption (also known as public key cryptography), uses two keys for encryption, a public key and a secret key. The public key is made freely available to anyone, but the private key is kept secret so that only the intended individual can access the private data. The ECDSA is an asymmetric digital signature algorithm that is a variant of the elliptical curve cryptography (ECC). The digital signature algorithm is a Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) for digital signatures that generates keys in two phases, where the first phase provides a choice of algorithm parameters that may be shared between different users, and the second phase computes public and private keys for a single user. Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) is a next-generation technology and one of the most powerful types of cryptography in wide use today. In his article entitled "A (relatively easy to understand) primer on elliptic curve cryptography," published by Arstechnica.com, Nick Sullivan says that "based on currently understood mathematics, [ECC] provides a significantly more secure foundation than first-generation public key cryptography systems." Immutable Hardware-Based Cryptography Maxim Integrated (Maxim) has developed and manufactures DeepCover ® Secure Microcontrollers, which integrate advanced cryptography and physical security to offer the highest level of protection against side-channel attacks, physical tampering, and reverse engineering. The DeepCover secure Microcontrollers incorporate secure nonvolatile static random-access memory (NV SRAM) that is instantly erased when an intrusion is detected. It carries patented real-time code and data encryption that fully protects external memories as well as carries proprietary active tamper-reaction technology that instantaneously wipes out the keys and secrets of devices during tampering attempts, thus triggering a level three or four FIPS 140-2 security measure. For applications that cannot accommodate a battery, DeepCover 5 | 5 | Figure 1: Blockchain technology is a public digital ledger, preventing transaction record changes retroactively without an alteration of all subsequent blocks and without a collusion of the network. (Source: Getty Images)

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