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19 | torque current independently. Mathematical models of the flux are used to control when and how much current is supplied to the electromagnets. The positioning of the rotor can be accurately calculated from the current returning from the stator windings, eliminating the need for sensors. It is possible to use vector control in several types of motors— including newer hybrid designs, such as permanent magnet- assisted synchronous reluctance motors—by selecting the correct mathematical model for the motor type. This feature can ease future migration to more efficient motors. Implementing the hardware solution for a vector-controlled motor can also be simplified by selecting a microcontroller IC that includes analog signal chain functions, power gate drivers, and DSP extensions. Alternatively, a dedicated IC for complex motor control applications can be used. For example, Microchip Technology's Digital Signal Controller range combines the features of a microcontroller and a DSP (Figure 4). Conclusion Efficient control of electrical motors is pivotal for optimizing performance across a wide array of applications, from simple household appliances to complex industrial machinery. Various control methods, each with unique advantages and challenges, cater to different motor types and application requirements. Cost- effective brushed DC motors benefit from straightforward control techniques like PWM, while BLDC motors demand more sophisticated control methods such Figure 4: Block diagram of a standard sensor-less FOC. (Source: Microchip Technology)