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55 | that individual hardware elements are functioning properly when assembled, as troubleshooting the entire assembled system may present complexities that obfuscate defective parts, design errors, or assembly errors. When engineers install RF systems such as cellular or Wi-Fi services, they test them to ensure the installation meets contract specifications and regulatory requirements. They may also periodically test RF and wireless installations to confirm they operate within safety and regulatory parameters. These tests can include over-the-air tests, like spectrum monitoring, as well as testing via injecting signals and equipment to capture the signals within a system's conductive channels (e.g., during passive intermodulation (PIM) distortion testing). Engineers often create RF hardware models using mathematics and physical testing results to simplify system design and minimize physical testing. For example, when designing a wireless device, engineers often develop the antenna and wireless system simultaneously. The prototype antennas can be physically tested to generate hardware models that are then used alongside the RF circuit hardware in simulations. With accurate and sophisticated models, simulations can reduce the scope of physical testing, particularly in early design and prototyping, which may drastically lower the development cost and time. Some RF systems internally integrate RF testing to verify safety and performance. However, this is typically done with mission- critical equipment that incorporates dedicated internal testing circuits and hardware. With the rise of digital integration within RF systems, designers are increasingly able to integrate testing that can digitally synthesize and convert RF signals. Hence, it is possible to use coupled paths and switch matrices to test the signal response at key points in a signal chain as part of automated testing or tuning procedures on a circuit board, system-in-package (SiP), or system-on-chip (SoC). How RF Measurements Are Made The scope of RF measurement techniques and methods is incredibly expansive, and RF measurements can be made using different transmission mediums to convey and guide the test signal energy. In some cases, RF measurements are made in situ during the operation of the RF component, device, assembly, or system. In other cases, a single device under test (DUT) is isolated and tested in a configuration specifically designed for one or multiple RF measurements. RF tests generally fall into two categories: those where test equipment generates signals to test the system, and those where it measures signals generated by the system under test (SUT). For instance, some RF testing can be done on wireless communication installations by remote equipment capturing ambient signals. In contrast, other testing would X-NUCLEO-NFC10A1 NFC Card Reader Expansion Board mouser.com/stm-x-nucleo-nfc10a1-board