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16 Advancements in Industrial Automation a factory outside of typically designated guided areas, perhaps moving heavy manufactured items, relocating raw materials, or operating in dangerous scenarios (Figure 2). This means that modern AGVs and autonomous mobile robots need to be quick and responsive to prevent accidents or damage to manufacturing tools or items, facility personnel, or even the robotic systems themselves. Hence, the sensors used to prevent collisions, handle materials, enable navigation, and endure the stability of robotic systems are vital. Critical Types of Robotics-Enabling Sensors This section highlights several types of sensors used in robotic manufacturing systems. These sensor types are often essential for robotic system functions, such as positioning, detecting items, and safety features. Torque Sensors Torque sensors measure rotational forces. Many robotic systems use rotational elements, often driven by electrical motors or servos, that either completely rotate or simply have a rotating moment. It is important to know the rotational force's torque, as this could indicate if there is an obstruction, if an object is mishandled, or if there is damage to the robotic system. In the case of mobile Figure 2: Diagram depicting AGV and autonomous mobile robots operation within a factory environment. (Source: TE Connectivity) robotic systems, this can be used to determine the safety or stability of a load as the robot is moving at different grades. In extreme safety cases, a torque sensor can determine if a human operator or some other obstruction has entered the robotic system's movement path and help prevent injury. Optical Sensors Various optical sensors exist, including some with an immersion source and additional circuitry that can be used to determine proximity. Optical sensors tend to be very reliable and somewhat rugged, but they must be positioned externally to the robotic system to detect external objects. In this way, optical sensors are often used for navigation, collision prevention, and object/material detection. They are relatively affordable and easy to integrate, which allows their widespread use as a primary sensor for stationary and mobile robotic systems. AMR Position Sensors Anisotropic magnetoresistive (AMR) position sensors enable the sensing of ferromagnetic moving and rotating elements. This type of sensor—along with optical, Hall effect, ultrasonic, and capacitive sensors—is another solution for detecting and measuring the relative position between two objects with high precision. Hence, AMR position sensors can be used standalone or as part of a redundancy