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C h a p t e r 1 | S u b s y s t e m s o f a n A M R non-safety-critical applications to maintain compliance. If the robot controller integrates both on a single processor, any firmware updates to non-safety software could require a full recertification process, increasing development costs and time. To avoid this, many designers opt to separate safety-critical and non- safety-critical processing tasks across multiple processors. Perception Sensors Perception sensors enable AMRs to detect their surroundings, identify obstacles, and map their environment. These sensors include LiDAR, radar, cameras, ultrasonic sensors, and proximity sensors, each of which plays a unique role in perception and navigation. LiDAR is widely used in AMRs due to its ability to generate high-resolution 3D maps of an environment. It excels at accurately measuring distances and detecting obstacles but has limitations in poor weather conditions such as rain, fog, or dust, where it struggles to detect transparent surfaces like glass or highly reflective materials like mirrors. Radar sensors complement LiDAR by functioning reliably in adverse conditions, such as in low-light, foggy, smoky, or dust-filled environments. Unlike LiDAR, radar can detect transparent objects and measure the velocity of moving obstacles using the Doppler effect. However, it does not provide the same level of detailed spatial information as LiDAR. Vision-based cameras provide rich visual data that allow AMRs to recognize objects, read text, and interpret environmental cues such as colored lines, symbols, or signage. Unfortunately, cameras rely on sufficient lighting and may struggle in low-light conditions. While they are highly effective for object recognition and Afiq Yusof Senior Robotics System Engineer, Delta Electronics The robot controller is integral to an AMR, directly impacting how efficiently a robot can perform its tasks. A well-designed controller ensures smooth operation through precise motion control and optimized response time." 8 13 Experts Discuss Autonomous Mobile Robots