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| 30 antennas, such as smartphones and tablets. Micro-coaxial technology uses proprietary methods to develop 3D metallic structures that can be used to build true coaxial transmission lines or waveguides as interconnects for embedded components in a high-precision platform. There is continual development in 3D printing technologies, such as fused-deposition modeling (FDM), laser sintering, and digital-light processing (DLP), to build RF circuit technologies. Examples include multi-filament printing FDM with dielectrics and conductors to make RF components, plating DLP-based parts, and directly printing metallic structures with laser metal sintering. RF Interconnect Technologies For RF circuits to function, electromagnetic energy in the RF spectrum that is either generated by or captured by a transducer must somehow reach the circuit components. Because free-space propagation results in signal characteristics that are not ideal for most RF circuits, designers generally use interconnect methods that efficiently capture and direct electromagnetic energy. Often, circuit designs use conductors or dielectrics as interconnects to form transmission lines or waveguides. However, many RF modules and systems require external RF circuit connections to the antenna, other modules, or other RF systems. For example, in test and measurement or automated manufacturing applications, interconnects such as spring pins (pogo pins) or probes allow for repeated cycling at relatively rapid speeds. There are also more permanent interconnecting methods, such as wire bonding, for binding IC contacts to packages or between ICs. Waveguides Waveguides are hollow conductive structures that "guide" electromagnetic energy within a specific maximum and minimum (i.e., banded) frequency along the structure. Unlike coaxial cables, which can carry signals down to DC (0Hz), waveguides function efficiently only above a specific frequency, known as the cutoff frequency. Below this threshold, electromagnetic waves cannot propagate, leading to signal attenuation instead of transmission. The cutoff frequency is determined by the waveguide's physical dimensions, which are proportional to the wavelength of the signals they carry. This means that lower-frequency waveguides must be physically larger, while higher-frequency waveguides can be much smaller. Waveguides are highly efficient at guiding electromagnetic energy with minimal loss, making them ideal for high-frequency, high-power, and sensitive RF applications. They are also physically rugged, which contributes to their widespread use in aerospace, defense, and industrial settings. Waveguide components, such as filters, power dividers and combiners, attenuators, and antennas, can be constructed with relatively simple metallic structures but may also incorporate complex designs to expand bandwidth or enhance performance. Since waveguides and coaxial technologies are often used together in RF systems, various adapters and transition components exist to facilitate seamless interconnection. Twisted Pair, Twinaxial, & Triaxial Twisted pair, twinaxial, and triaxial interconnects are all forms of transmission lines. Twisted pair systems, such as those used with old telephony wiring and Ethernet category cabling, are made using a pair of insulated conductors wrapped around each other to form a crude transmission line. This method does not provide any shielding but is more efficient for signal transfer at lower frequencies than a single conductor or radiation. Twinaxial and triaxial are like coaxial interconnects, but twinaxial transmission lines have an additional center conductor (forming a twisted-pair balanced line), and triaxial transmission lines have an additional outer conductor. Twinaxial is predominantly used for short-range and high-speed differential signaling to tens of megahertz (generally less than 200MHz). Triaxial cables can be driven so that the internal shielding is floating, which provides enhanced shielding and protection from outside noise. Triaxial cables are used for high- frequency transducers, precision measurement equipment, and applications requiring low- impedance transmission lines. Wire Bonds & Probes Wire bonding is a method of permanently attaching bond pads on ICs to package leads